ABSTRACT

This study assessed the roles of gender in cooperative development. The study was specifically carried out to find out whether there is a gender imbalance in co-operative development, examine the areas where there is gender disparity in co-operative development, investigate the causes technical inefficiency in gender disparity in co-operative development, and assess measures on how gender imbalance in co-operative development can be minimized. A total of 150 responses were validated from the survey. The study adopts the financial intermediation theory. From the responses obtained and analysed, the findings reveals that the areas of gender disparity in co-operative development include: leadership, education, management and employment. The study recommends that a strategic business plan is important to harmonize all the ingredients for cooperative’s progress by encouraging farming in large scale, such as cooperative farming. The study further recommends that intensified sensitization programme should be innovated by the ADP, with a view to encouraging participation in cooperative activities among existing and prospective male cooperators. This is necessary because of the declining participation of male cooperators in cooperative activities and the increasing problem of gender imbalance therein.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Cooperatives have been recognized as promising pathway for reducing poverty, promoting human development, empowering women and reducing gender inequality (Sen, 2004; Bibby and Shaw, 2005; Majurin, 2012; Schincariol McMurtry and McMurtry, 2015; Duguid and Weber, 2016). They refer to “an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise” (ILO, 2002). Their values such as fairness, equality, self-help, equity and solidarity; and their principles of voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, member economic participation, autonomy and independency, and education, training and information (Alliance, 2015b; Duguid and Weber, 2016) give them the credibility to empower and give voice to the poor and marginalized group including women (ILO, 2015a).

Existence of gender imbalances is among the challenges of the traditional rural cooperatives1 or agricultural production and agricultural marketing cooperatives in Sub-Saharan countries, which deter inclusion of women in these cooperatives. Despite women constitute a large part of the agricultural labour force in these countries, their share in the agriculturally based cooperatives tend to be small with a few women leaders as well (Majurin, 2012; Duguid and Weber, 2016). Various reasons have been pointed out in the literature including having rural cooperatives that deal with cash crops like coffee and cotton, which are men’s crops (Rawlings and Shaw, 2016); lack of access to land, and their limited access to inputs, seeds, credits, financial support, and extension services. It is also been argued the gendered power relations and hierarchies carried along in these cooperatives, tend to discriminate women from joining and discourage women members from becoming cooperative leaders (Majurin, 2012).

Since 2000, there has been a rise of women’s cooperatives or women-only cooperatives (Schincariol McMurtry and McMurtry, 2015; Duguid and Weber, 2016). This has been as a result of externally motivated factors, such as donors’ funding priorities toward women inclusion in cooperative development. Women-only cooperatives have been considered to provide a better avenue to enabling women’s inclusion in the labour force and formal economy (Schincariol McMurtry and McMurtry, 2015). These cooperatives create opportunities for women to learn about cooperative business and the building of capital. In addition, these cooperatives assist women in overcoming social cultural constraints, which limit them from participation in workforce, entrepreneurial and leadership positions and activities (ILO COOP, 2014; Schincariol McMurtry and McMurtry, 2015; Duguid and Weber, 2016).

It is further argued that women’s cooperatives facilitate women to advance their skills and experience necessary to participate in larger co-operatives (Alliance, 2015a). The cooperatives are also envisaged to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment purely through their operational cooperative principles (Majurin, 2010; Duguid and Weber, 2016). Some of these operational principles are open membership, democratic member control, member economic participation, and education, training and information (Alliance, 2015b; Duguid and Weber, 2016). Therefore, women’s cooperatives have been recognized as the pathway to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals on gender equality and women’s empowerment. Russell- DuVarney (2013) claims that Women’s cooperatives adopt gender-specific organizational framework which supports and provides a safe environment for women to challenge patriarchal social norms related to decision-making and leadership. Generally, cooperatives have been argued to have positive impact on women’s lives and gender equality through access to employment, improved working condition and social benefits (Schincariol McMurtry and McMurtry, 2015). However, women’s only cooperatives as topic of study still empirical studies to support the existing evidence derived from the gender-mixed cooperatives.

On other hand, the ability of the cooperatives to achieve women’s empowerment and improve gender equality is debatable and requires more empirical investigations. For example, Dohmwirth (2014) points out that there is no definitive connection between participation and empowerment for women involved in co-operatives, in developing countries. The argument presented is that cooperatives often reflect the same power relations of the society they exist within. Hence, realizing gender equality is still a challenge in cooperatives (Wanyama, 2014). According to Duguid and Weber (2016), many publications indicate that cooperative have positive impacts on women without a lot of substantive evidence backing them up. Furthermore, it is claimed that women’s cooperatives are likely to suffer from negative stereotypes and discrimination manoeuvres which fail them achieve their goals (Sobering et al., 2014).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Co-operatives are based on the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. In the tradition of their founders, co-operative members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others (Alliance, 1995). Similarly, Craig (1993) defines cooperative is the free and voluntary association of people to create an organization which they democratically control, providing themselves with goods, services and/or a livelihood rather than profiting from others, with an equitable contribution of capital and acceptance of a fair share of risks and benefits generation by the joint activity. To sustain their endeavor they must develop individuals and build a solidarity relationship with other co-operators and like-minded people (p. 43).

While talking about equality and equity, gender roles play vital role on the development of cooperative societies. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Gender concept simply refers to the socially strong-minded and culturally specific differences between women and men as divergent to the biological determined differences. Gender imbalance in employment, in job status, in poverty status and in earnings over time constitutes the major problems affecting the development of cooperative industries. To increase female participation in cooperatives, policy of it plays important roles.

"A policy is a statement that provides guidelines for actions to attain the established objectives of the cooperative and reflect the cooperative’s basic philosophy" (Rapp, 1990, p. 1). Policies are directions to plans. Well written policy facilitates delegation of authority to the lowest realistic level in the cooperative. Written policy statements are supposed to be a major factor of each cooperative’s planning activity. So that, these policies reflect the cooperative’s basic philosophy and assist as guidelines for actions the cooperative takes to achieve its established objectives. Rapp (1990) states that policies are not all of equal importance. Some policies are of such significance they determine the character of the business. Others are limited in scope and could be changed or eliminated without effect. The International Cooperative Alliance (ICA, 2010) defines a cooperative as “an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise” (ICA, 2010).

The available literature on women and cooperatives has inadequate empirical evidence on how women’s co-operatives in particular bring gender transformative change to alter patriarchy influenced gender relations in the households. Most studies on women and cooperatives have mainly targeted women to understand their experiences on the impact of cooperatives on their well-being, empowerment and gender equality. There is still a research gap in terms of understanding men’s perspectives and experiences as the result of women’s capabilities and empowerment acquired through women-only cooperatives.

1.3 Objectives  of the study

The general objective if this study is to assess the role of gender in co-operative development. Specifically, the study will;

1. Find out whether there is a gender imbalance in co-operative development.

2. Examine the areas where there is gender disparity in co-operative development.

3. Investigate the causes technical inefficiency in gender disparity in co-operative development.

4. Assess measures on how gender imbalance in co-operative development can be minimized.

1.4 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following questions;

1. Is there a gender imbalance in co-operative development?

2. What are the areas where there is gender disparity in co-operative development?

3. What causes technical inefficiency in gender disparity in co-operative development?

4. What are the measures gender imbalance in co-operative development can be minimized?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The study will test the validity of the the following hypotheses;

H01: There is no gender imbalance in cooperative societies.

1.5 Significance of the study

The significance of the study cannot be overemphasized as it will unveil the ocio-economic profile of    the cooperators on the basis of gender; the technical efficiency of cooperators, the technical efficiency of the cooperators along gender lines, and the factors  hindering  the  implementation of gender sensitive   programmes   and   activities   in   the societies. Additionally, the recommendations made in the chapter five of this study will be relevantly used to manage the factors hindering the implementation of gender sensitive   programmes   and   activities   in   the societies. More so, the study will contribute to the body of existing literature and hence will serve as a source of information to students and researchers who may want to carry out a study on a related topic.

1.6 Scope of the study

Generally, this study examines the role of gender in cooperative development. Empirically, this study focuses on finding out whether there is a gender imbalance in co-operative development, examining the areas where there is gender disparity in co-operative development, investigating the causes technical inefficiency in gender disparity in co-operative development and assessing measures on how gender imbalance in co-operative development can be minimized . Hence the study will be carried out in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

1.8 Limitations of the study

In the course of carrying out this study, the researcher experienced some constraints, which included time constraints, financial constraints, language barriers, and the attitude of the respondents.

In addition, there was the element of researcher bias. Here, the researcher possessed some biases that may have been reflected in the way the data was collected, the type of people interviewed or sampled, and how the data gathered was interpreted thereafter. The potential for all this to influence the findings and conclusions could not be downplayed.

1.9 Definition of terms

Role: the function assumed or part played by a person or thing in a particular situation.

Cooperative Society: A cooperative is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically owned by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.

Gender: Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures and gender expression.